Wednesday 31 July 2019

Transformational and Transactional Leadership

Transformational and Transactional Leadership Transformational and Transactional Leadership Thomas J. Kenny CRJ-810 Dec 16, 2011 Many styles of leadership exist in the management world. Most of these approaches are very similar to one another. Two very different styles of leadership are the transactional and transformational leadership styles identified by James Burns in 1978. These leadership styles are almost polar opposites of one another, with employees in the transactional leadership style motivated by rewards and benefits, and employees in the transformational style motivated by their charismatic managers.These two leadership styles, though different from each another, can be very effective tools in the world of policing. Transactional leadership represents â€Å"those exchanges in which both the superior and the subordinate influence one another reciprocally so that each derives something of value. †(Yukl, 1981) This style of leadership can be compared to dangling a car rot in front of someone, or giving officers who write the most tickets steady weekends off. Leaders who use this style give their subordinates something they want in exchange for something that the leader wants.The reward system of leadership used by the transactional leader can also involve rewards or values that are not as easily tangible such as trust and respect. Burns(1978) referred to these values as modal values; â€Å"modal values bond leaders to followers in an attempt to actualize the needs of both parties. † These rewards such as trust and respect may still be given out by low level police supervisors who may not have the authority to give out overtime or authorize special days off.While transactional leadership is concerned with increasing production and motivation through a reward based system, transformational leadership is concerned with making the employee want to succeed. Bass & Steidlmeier (1998) describes this difference as: Transformational leadership is p redicated upon the inner dynamics of a freely embraced change of heart in the realm of core values and motivation, upon open-ended intellectual stimulation and a commitment to treating people as ends not mere means.To bring about change, authentic transformational leadership fosters the modal values of honesty, loyalty and fairness and the end values of justice, equality, and human rights. Transformational leadership contains four components: â€Å"idealized influence (attributed or behavioral),inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. † (Bass, 1985) These four components can be summed up as that of a charismatic leader. Employees will see the qualities of this charismatic leader and try to emulate them.Bass (1985) describes this emulation of charismatic leaders as: If the leadership is transformational, its charisma or idealized influence is envisioning, confident, and sets high standards for emulation. Its inspirational motivation provides followers with challenges and meaning for engaging in shared goals and undertakings. Its intellectual stimulation helps followers to question assumptions and to generate more creative solutions to problems. Its individualized consideration treats each follower as an individual and provides coaching, mentoring and growth opportunities.Transformational leadership can be very effective in the world of policing, where the leadership exists from the top down. Officers who work for a transformational leader in a police department must â€Å"understand the vision of the department’s direction, appreciate the organization’s potential, believe that the goal of improvement is supported by the entire organization, and support the idea that change is needed. † (Bynum, 2008) Transformational Leadership can be very effective due to the fact that its motivational and inspirational effects can be long lasting and felt by every employee in the organization.Transformati onal leadership encourages its members to be more proactive and more productive without any specific direction or a reward in mind other than that it benefit’s the organization as a whole. With transactional leadership, some of the rewards such as better hours or days off can only be enjoyed by a few of the members. A competition to see who can write the most summonses, with the winner getting better days off, may increase production at first.The benefit of weekends off can not be given to everyone though, and usually only those who receive the reward will continue to produce as much. Transformational leadership might have a difficult time succeeding in an organization such as the New York City Police Department. The NYPD was founded in 1845, and therefore is deeply rooted in traditions and norms. Even the most charismatic leader, brought into the NYPD to institute change and a new direction, is going to be met with extreme resistance.Police Officers, who can tend to be very reflexive at times, might not take well to the idea of being self starting, proactive, and productive for their department. This initial resistance by subordinates usually makes the transformational leadership approach a long term solution to a departments problems. Transformational leadership tends to be more effective that transactional leadership, due to the fact that most of the terms in the reward based system of transactional leadership are defined and tangible.The subordinate is expected to produce a certain amount in order to receive a benefit. This can tend to make the employee cease production once they have met the production requirement. Conversely in transformational leadership the employees are motivated not by a reward, but for the good of the organization as a whole. This motivation can lead employees in a transformational leader organization to produce much more than what is expected of them. The fact that the terms of a transactional leadership arrangement are tang ible also makes it effective for a short term production problem.A precinct with an influx of burglaries, might offer an extra day off to the next officer who makes a burglary arrest. While in the long run they would want the officer to always be vigilant for burglary arrests, the added benefit of a day off will have additional motivational effects. Transformational leadership is most often effective in organizations that have a need for change, or that have undergone a recent crisis. Transformational leaders tend to have uniting qualities, which can bring an organization out of mediocrity.Adolf Hitler, who was a tremendously charismatic transformational leader, was able to bring Germany back from the brink of total collapse and financial ruin that it was in following World War I. Transformational and transactional leadership can be two of the most effective styles of leadership in policing. By using the transformational leadership style, police managers can foster an group of proac tive and motivated police officers, who want to achieve greater results for the good of the team.By using the transactional leadership approach, they can achieve great results exchanging rewards and benefits with subordinates for increased production. Using a combination of these two approaches to police leadership should lead to great success. References Bass, B. , & Steidlmeier, P. (1998). Ethics, Character, and Authentic Transformational Leadership. Vanguard. edu. Retrieved December 10, 2011, from www. vanguard. edu/uploadedFiles/Faculty/RHeuser/ETHICS,%20MORAL%20CHARACTER%20AND%20AUTHENTIC%20TRANSFORMATIONAL%20LEADERSHIP. df Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press ;. Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row. Bynum, R. (2008). Transformational Leadership and Staff Training in the Law Enforcement Profession. The Police Chief. Retrieved December 10, 2011, from www. policechiefmagazine. org/magazine/index. cfm? fuseacti on=display_arch&article_id=1422&issue_id=22008 Yukl, G. A. (1981). Leadership in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Prentice-Hall.

Tuesday 30 July 2019

Hilton Hotel

These things that I learned at last lesson: 1)Product and service difference: Basically ; Products are tangible and services are intangible. For example; Apple Iphone, Coffe Mocha at Starbucks are products,but healthy services sector,home repair service,wireless communication,trip to somewhere ;they dont result ownership of anything. 2)Customer vs. consumer :Customer and consumer are not same things. For example;mother buy napkin for her baby and then baby consume it in this situation baby is a consumer, mother is a customer . )Sales dont mean to marketing. Sales cover just selling but marketing process makes the broad strategy. Selling and advertising are only part of larger ‘marketing mix’ marketers purpose satisfying customer needs. 4)Consumer Behavior:’The behavior that consumers display in searching for purchasing,using,evaulating and disposing of products and services that they expect will satisfy their needs’. When ? decide to buy new product what fa ctors influence on me?A)External factors:cultural,social,family roles&status,reference groups B)Internal factors:psychological factors(motivation,perception,learning,belief and attitudes) * Consumer behavior includes all the decisions a consumer makes when spending their time and money. The what,why,when,where,and how of consumer purchases are examined. 5)Two consumer entities Personal consumer:the individual who buys goods &services for his or her own use for household use. Organizational consumer:Business,government Marketing Concept: Production orientation:company wanted efficient production lines ,not focused product variation.Sales Orientation:overproduction,excess product Marketing concept:focus on customer,expectations of customer,marketers become more sophisticated in understanding the consumer and delivering products that meet their need. Societal Marketing Concept:Consider consumers long run best interest,in this concept marketers are consciousof negative effect health,env ironment. * Fair trade: trying to give support manufacturer,especially poor companies such as Africa Endonesia. Segmentation,targeting,positioning:Segment:share simialr meet and expectations and enables marketers to target consumers.Divide the total market into smaller segments. (segmentation) Types of segmentation:geographic,demographic(age gender,family size,family life-cycle Marketing mix: The set of tactical marketing tool. 4P=PRODUCT,PLACE,PROMOTION,PRICE. P roduct;goods&services combination. Place;includes company activities that make the product available to target consumers. for example;using social networks,internet stores. Promotion;activities that malke product availableto target customers,and persuade. (public relation,advertisement,selling process. Customer value:Perceived value is relative and subjective.Developing a value proposition(unique selling proposition) is critical in attaining successful positioning of a broad Customer trust: Recommendation,word of mouth infl uence on customers,newspaper,websites Customer retention:loyal customer:buy more products, are less price sensitive Customer profitibality-focused marketing: BCG growth-share matrix=each produsct hs different contribution(star,question mark,cash cow,dog) Platinum- heavy user,not price sensitive Gold-heavy user but not as profitable Iron Lead-like dogs in bcg approaches SEYMA TEMEL-135710019 Hilton Hotel News Brief Hilton Hotels tops in customer satisfaction http://planyourmeetings. com/2006/06/01/hilton-hotels-tops-in-customer-satisfaction/ By Kristi Casey Sanders Published: June 1, 2006 Hilton Hotels Corporation leads the hotel industry in customer satisfaction, according to the latest statistics from the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI). With a score of 78 points out of a possible 100, Hilton took the leadership position among the seven hotel companies mentioned in the survey. Overall, the hotel industry improved 3 percent to 75, equaling its highest score since 1994. Hilton takes great pride in its ACSI customer satisfaction score, which confirms the results of an unparalleled focus and commitment by the 74,000 team members at our owned and managed hotel properties across the country to deliver the best in guest service,† said Dieter Huckestein, president – hotel operations owned and managed for Hilton Hotels Corporation. Hilton’s portfolio of 2,000 hotels includes Hilton, Doubletree, Embassy Suites Hotels, Hampton Inn, Hampton Inn & Suites, Hilton Garden Inn and Homewood Suites by Hilton.The ACSI is produced through a partnership of the University of Michigan Business School, ASQ, and CFI Group, which measures customer satisfaction in the competitive hotel industry on a regular basis. The ACSI is updated on a rolling basis. New scores for the hotel industry replace those collected one year ago and are added to scores of five other sectors of the economy measured during the intervening year. One sector that didn’t fare well was the airline industry, which dropped 1. percent to 65, its lowest score since the industry was rocked by 9/11. Southwest Airlines still rules the industry at 74. US Airways made the industry’s biggest jump, improving nearly 9 percent to 62. Northwest Airlines, on the other hand, dropped 4. 7 percent to 61, taking last place in the industry as it struggles with strikes and a Chapter 11 bankr uptcy filing. The overall decline was attributed to the airlines’ struggle with labor contracts, bankruptcies and higher fuel prices, leaving consumers feeling they are getting less for their money.

Monday 29 July 2019

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 148

Assignment Example There 155 units are supplied to the market at that price. Results are shown in the table in Q.2 An increase in demand as a result of a decrease in prices without a corresponding change in supply will push the demand curve upwards and hence result to a shift of the demand curve to the right, that is, from D to D2. An increase in prices will reduce the consumer’s purchasing power and hence shift the demand curve downwards to the left; from D to D1 as shown by the arrows. An increase in prices will result to an increase in supply and this shifts the supply curve to the right from S to S2. A decrease in prices decreases supply shifting the supply curve to the left from S to S1. The shift is shown by the arrows, demand remains constant. The equilibrium moves to the left incase of a decrease in supply and to the right in case of an increase in supply. An increase in both supply and demand will expand the market resulting in an increase in both the prices of the goods and also the quantity of goods supplied and demanded. The equilibrium shifts to the right (William 12). A decrease in both demand and supply will contract the market leading to lower prices of goods and lower quantities of goods traded. Hence the equilibrium price and quantity shifts to the left (William

Sunday 28 July 2019

What Human Resource Management Is And To What Extent Do Hard And Essay

What Human Resource Management Is And To What Extent Do Hard And Soft HRM Practices Differ - Essay Example The researcher states that in the recent past adoption of HRM practices has been on the rise thus challenging the personnel management existing order in many organizations. A lot of questions have remained unexplained on why HRM has been dominant over the other practices of employment. Attempts to sufficiently define the role of HRM have been unsuccessful. Many scholars had to speculate if there has been anything new formed regarding the precise definition of HRM. Some view human resource management to be in direct rebellion and rejection with personnel management and industrial relations. Others on the other hand view HRM to be a repackaged form of Personnel Management. Interestingly, there has been a considerable degree of extension and overlap between the roles, models, and theories that constitute the disciplines of Personnel Management and HRM. The overlap is in support of the fact and argument that HRM is Personnel Management that has been repackaged, and there is no big change between the two. On the contrast, the HRM outcomes have not been in agreement with that of traditional Personnel management. For example, cultural controls, strategic orientations, and normative concepts are absent in HRM. Many argue that the distinction between HRM and Personnel Management is on the different ways in which the theories and models they share are being deployed. A definite example that districts between the two disciplines are discourse and dialogue HRM treats labor unions. To the labor process theory, HRM has become a universal term describing the different employment governance approach. To define the employment management procedures, it is necessary to distinguish between HRM as a discipline and HRM as a dialogue. To reveal the actual role of HRM it is vital to carry out a definition of based in the context it operates in. In my view, HRM is a regulation mode that nurtures an accumulation capitalist regime. It is because the HRM practices were first being formula ted implemented by the Western nations whose economies are capitalists in nature.

Engineering Analysis 4 - Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Engineering Analysis 4 - - Assignment Example Its highly encouraged to use different methods apart from the above mentioned since they are able to yield precisely better results, a way to counter this problem. b Many Laplace Transform software have been developed to solve the differential equations, this software need someone with skills in computers and knowledge in the Laplace so as to use the software efficiently and to be able to guide it to produce error free results. Its encouraged to use the right software that has been tested for to reduce these errors. d The method is tiresome and one mistake in the process can produce wrong results. This can problem is easily countered by looking carefully at the equations and also making sure each variable is corresponding to the value its assigned. The Laplace transform is a method that is applied in solving linear ordinary differential equations. It finds its way in different fields such as in Physics, Control Engineering, electrical Engineering, Signal processing and also Optics. Here we look at different areas were its applied a Application in Physics (It is part of engineering study)- it can be used to solve the harmonics vibrations of the beams at their both end. The formula is correctly inserted to calculate these harmonics c In power system load frequency control- power systems are comprised of transmissions, generations and distributions of systems.There must be turbines which drives a generator that serves the load through distributing and transmission lines. C) The analytic solution does not give the exact solution of the y value. Furthermore, analytic method cannot be used to solve complex differential equations. Analytic solutions can only be used to solve ordinary differential equations of systems where approximations are allowed hence they cannot be used in the design of medical systems and other sensitive engineering systems. Analytic methods are used to solve system equations where complex

Saturday 27 July 2019

Zeno's Paradox of Achilles and the Tortoise Essay

Zeno's Paradox of Achilles and the Tortoise - Essay Example By our perception of motion, we know that Achilles is faster than the tortoise and thus he can easily overcome the tortoise in any race. We can physically prove our initial hypothesis that Achilles can beat the tortoise in a race and see that Achilles will at some point outrun the tortoise by the distance he has covered in leaps and bounds. Space or distance has always been measured by our senses; our eyes can visibly see that the distance traveled by Achilles is indeed greater than that of the tortoise. But this is what Zeno intends to postulate in the first place: our senses should be discredited as they are illusory and motion is logically impossible. Zeno’s paradox about the footrace of the tortoise and Achilles is built on one basic assumption: that the race between these two has no goal or each runner cannot reach their goal. In that case, the tortoise and Achilles’ course of movement extends to infinity and this is where the absurdity lies; there is no race that extends to infinity else the tortoise and Achilles would forever be moving forward and there would be no race at all. This dialectic reasoning of Zeno implies that Achilles will never catch the tortoise in a footrace, but the deeper implication of this paradox lies in the conclusion that no thing, for example a tortoise, or no one, in general, has a limit. As grandiose as this profound and philosophical conclusion is, Zeno’s paradox suggests that man’s abilities are limitless, very great in amount and degree, or boundless, having no apparent end. This paradox about man then puts forward a notion that his actions extend through an infinite amount of time and space. Our actions cover far greater than our senses can perceive; they extend to the end of time and the end of the universe. This claim becomes practically absurd because we know that time and the universe has no end to begin with while man has through his own death. Going back to Zeno’s paradox, his conclusion

Friday 26 July 2019

The Movements of Employees at Work Abstract Essay

The Movements of Employees at Work Abstract - Essay Example Employee monitoring can be defined as the act of surveillance and monitor employees’ actions during stipulated working hours by use of employer equipment (Stanton & Stam, 2006). It entails the use of computers to record, evaluate and observe an employees’ use of a computer, plus communications like websites visited and emails sent or received besides telephone calls made. However, it is legal for employers to use computer programs to monitor employees (Duquenoy, Jones & Blundell, 2008). Employee surveillance has gained prominence as a prerequisite and in the same breath a contentious issue due to the complexity and prevalent use of technology in the workplace. Employers are worried about employees’ proper behavior and conformity to work-related regulations. Hence some critics believe employee monitoring is an inalienable responsibility. To others, it is an invasion of privacy. Managers employ different ways of monitoring employees’ internet use, emails, an d their location to capitalize on employee productivity, uphold the integrity of the firm and to defend the interest of clientele and workmates (Duquenoy, Jones & Blundell, 2008). When managers start to probe into employees’ private life, mistrust and acrimony are built between employees’ and managers. Many workers have lost their employment and a lot more companies have had to face lawsuits filed against them because people believe that the use of internal company communications should remain confidential (Bassick, 2007). Managers and owners of private firms have had several reasons to scrutinize the activities of their employees. Some are driven by the displeasure when employees misuse company money and waste time to carry out non-work related tasks.  

Thursday 25 July 2019

Harlem poet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Harlem poet - Essay Example Claude McKay, a Jamaican-American poet, expressed concern over the heightened tension that emanated from racism that existed in the 1920s. His role during the Harlem Renaissance had outstanding impacts on a number of readers of poems. Some of his poems were quite militant with the core objective of challenging the brutal leadership experienced by the blacks. He was of key contribution in condemning the leadership while expressing the challenges faced by the blacks to cope with the racial tension at that time. He is iconic for advocating for the consideration of humanity and fair treatment of the oppressed. The celebration of the traditions and heritage of blacks was a key characteristic of the Harlem Renaissance. One of McKay’s most celebrated pieces of literature include If We Must Die poem. The piece of work was a justification of the rights of the blacks, who at the time experienced serious exclusion and segregation (Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 2003). In the poem, he stated that blacks were confident to wage against the forces of tyranny given their resilience. He writes, in the poem, that blacks intend to â€Å"fight back† (Shmoop, 2010) even when facing death. The major theme that is evident is prejudice and abuse. He expressed the plight of the blacks and the brutal leadership that they experienced. Langston Hughes wrote inspirational poems during the period of the 1920s. He is prominent for his role in spearheading the upcoming literary appreciation during Harlem Renaissance. Through the poems, he encouraged the pleasure of the traditions of the blacks and their heritage. Among his inspirational poetic works was the poem, The Weary Blues. The theme of art and culture of the Negro is evident through the poem. He describes the relationship between art and culture as confusing and initiates weariness. The theme of race is evident from the poem, as well. The African

Wednesday 24 July 2019

Capital Structure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Capital Structure - Essay Example I strongly believe in this context that the use of debt and equity in a proportionate manner aids in raising capital. Thus, based on my understanding, businesses are identified to consider two important elements that include â€Å"cost of capital† and â€Å"Weighted Average Cost of Capital† (WACC) for the purpose of accomplishing their respective business targets in long term. Subsequently, by mixing debt and equity, the aforesaid two elements can be reduced as per my knowledge. I think that obtaining debt in an adequate manner as a source of capital ensures in generating low and real risks of financial distress (Grundy, n.d.). In this regard, I support the fact that the use of only debt financing or equity financing is accountable for making financial distress in long run. As per my understanding, market values play an imperative role for companies at the time of raising capital. These are important as investors invest based on firms’ value and risks associated with businesses. Subsequently, I consider that there exists a complex relationship prevailing between WACC and debt, as increased amount of debt has positive as well as negative influences on the capital structure of a company. Consequently, I conjure that WACC values increase for more returns and on the other hand, these decreases for low cost of debt as compared to equity. In this regard, from the viewpoints of Modigliani & Miller, I understood that the market value of companies is not based on their respective capital structure totally but is also dependent on other factors (Grundy, n.d.). I strongly believed that gearing is a procedure of ascertaining capital structure of a company based on the relationship persisting between equity and debt. Thus, movements of WACC and share price impose significant impact on shareholders’ wealth. In this regard, the best example of understanding different aspects of debt and equity

Tuesday 23 July 2019

Annotated Bibliography on Human Rights Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

On Human Rights - Annotated Bibliography Example One of their cultural practices dictates the accumulation of large herds of cattle and cultivation of extensive agricultural lands with the former serving as a symbol for their wealth and power. The accumulation of vast lands and herds lead to the increase of their population density. Culturally, the Bantu-speaking farmers were described to use these amassed fields and horde of cattle for political and social transactions, including marriage issues related to the bride’s wealth compensation (termed as lobola) and â€Å"tribute demand purposes†. There was a group of Bantu-speakers who settled near water resources called as Sotho-Tswana. The other group of Bantu speakers who settled in coastal plains was known as Nguni. The third group of Bantu-speaking people, the Khoisans was another group known to settle on the west and southwest. Today, these three groups comprise majority of the settlers of South Africa. This article can purposely be used to study today’s comp osition and stratification of South Africa’s inhabitants which may help in drafting economic plans, policies and reforms or for whatever purpose it may serve.The article presents South Africa (SA)’s as a catalyst of the African continent. It is progressively an â€Å"emerging economy† in the making. Here, South Africa was presented to have achieved a world class economy, boasting of its abundant natural resources, established financial, communications, transportation. It has also boasted of a reliable and progressive legal framework system. In fact, it was also cited to be among one of the top 20 stock exchanges in the world. Finally, SA also boasts of its institutional vis-a-vis financial management reforms guaranteeing less risk to its foreign investors. Aside from posting a positive economic growth, the article also presents challenges or threats that may hamper SA’s economic growth if not properly addressed immediately through reforms. These deterrent factors include inadequate energy supply, IMF’s report about its long-standing issue on unemployment along with poverty, wide gap in wealth distribution and high incidence of HIV/ Aids. Since the best features about SA were featured in this article, it would best suit to get this positive information packaged into an investment portfolio for purposes of investment promotion in the near future. South Africa Human Rights, (2011). amnestyusa.org. Amnesty International US. Retrieved Feb. 06, 2011 from http://www.amnestyusa.org/all-countries/south-africa/page.do?id=1011238 The article presents an update on the South Africa’s committed violence against human rights. It presents records of different cases where human rights were violated. Killings, tortures, extrajudicial executions committed by officials in authority like policemen themselves, large scale forced evictions that ended up in violence between refugees and migrants, abuse of female minors, cases of battered and abused women are some of the crimes reported with high rates of incidence. The rate is so alarming that such crimes were attributed to the failure of government to implement its reforms, policies and guidelines aimed at suppressing these crimes and

Monday 22 July 2019

Military Strategies of of the I.R.A. During the Anglo Irish War of Independence, 1919-21 Essay Example for Free

Military Strategies of of the I.R.A. During the Anglo Irish War of Independence, 1919-21 Essay At the outbreak of hostilities it was apparent that the I. R. A. could not hope to win a traditional stand up military fight against a modern, well equipped army with the financial backing of The British Empire. In order to engage the crown forces in a guerrilla war, weapons and ammunition were required in large numbers. General Head Quarters (G. H. Q. ) authorized smuggling operations and had sent volunteers abroad to procure arms. G. H. Q. sold arms to the individual units, many of which were hampered in their operational status due to lack of funding to purchase weapons and ammunition. As the war progressed many Royal Irish Constabulary (R. I. C. ) barracks and the Crowns Tax Offices were attacked and burned. GHQ issued a general raid order in September of 1920. The primary objective the Volunteers attacks on isolated R. I. C. barracks were to obtain arms and ammunition. Many of these barracks were poorly defended and usually consisted of terraced houses. In order to disrupt the governance of rural areas, tax offices were targeted. These targets allowed collection of funds from the local populace that were to be appropriated to the Crown. These tactics were adopted by many units when news of the initial successes of these barracks and tax office attacks filtered out, throughout the country. The volunteers embarked on a campaign of Intimidation of R. I. C men and their families, and members of the general public who supported the crown forces, many of which were shot. This tactic was extremely effective at reducing the morale of the R. I. C. Recruitment dropped and resignations increased in the organization The R. I. C. retreated to larger towns after it was decided to evacuate may rural barracks. This tactic led to large parts of rural Ireland becoming ungovernable. This allowed the Dail to implement their much heralded Courts System, collect taxes and implement civil control. Most units at the start of the war appeared to act independently without central command control. Attacks on Crown Forces were sporadic in nature and were badly planned. Inexperience of many of the men in these units led to many failed operations Many units operations amounted to sabotage by digging trenches in roads, de-railing trains, cutting of communications lines, snipping at barracks and personnel. Even the most poorly equipped and inactive units could engage in many of these tactics. The effectiveness of military actions conducted varied widely accordingly to geographic location. Areas like South Tipperary, East Limerick and Cork were particularly active, while areas such as Wexford, Mayo and Waterford had low turnout and low activity. Cite. Meeting and Drilling after the day’s work was done, amounted to the extent of some volunteers actions for the duration of the war cite The willingness of volunteers to risk their safety was also another factor which hindered operations in many units. Volunteers who possessed weapons especially rifles were usually picked to partake in operations over volunteers who did not. The men who possessed guns gained experience on active operations and were given higher status within units. In many areas this led to a cycle of a select group of men getting more and more experience on active service, while men who had no weapons remained inactive were not gaining any such experience. To alleviate this some units introduced rotational systems were guns and ammunition were stored in a central weapons dump. Access to weapons dumps could only be gotten after permission from the units Quarter Master was given. Activity of units depended largely on the membership and the professionalism of their commanding officers. Traditionally commanding officers were elected and appointed by their members. Electoral decisions appeared to be based on the social standing of the officers, family traditions and whether the men liked them or not. Many units were hampered in their operations as officers would not authorize actions as they feared for their own safety or were incompetent in planning and action. To instil discipline and a sense of military professionalism G. H. Q. sent organizers out to instruct and train these officers and units that they commanded. Training camps were set up to properly instruct officers and volunteers. The military discipline in these camps was strictly enforced and the training was particularly gruelling. When men returned to their units, they were expected to instil similar discipline within the rank and file. Discipline was to be rigorously introduced by commanding officers and military punishment meted out for infractions. Formal reporting structures were introduced and all commanders were expected to submit reports to the central authority of G. H. Q. on a regular basis. These reports were analysed by G. H. Q. and orders were issued to individual units. This strategy led to a more centralized planning and intelligence apparatus. Ultimately G. H. Q. decided to set up divisions with respective commanders, in attempt to coordinate the activities of the volunteers within bordering brigade areas. These attempts at introducing a modern military structure into the different units were mostly successful, although highly active units such as South Tipperary maintained a more independent existence until the end of the war. Initially the volunteers had a very high tolerance to violence and did not want to be involved in operations that led to murder. This tolerance was eroded of the course of the war as reprisals by the crown forces, led to many civilian atrocities throughout the country. As the casualties list rose, public opinion turned against the British Government. This was galvanized by reports that started to appear in newspapers internationally and in London G. H. Q. published the details of many of these reprisals in their publication their political journal t-Oglach. The publications also included details of military tactics and so also functioned as a training manual for the volunteers. After the introduction of The Restoration of Order Act in August 1920 the and the introduction of martial law in the South in 1921, attacks and reprisals against the civilian population increased. The arrival of the much hated quais military/police forces which later became known as the Black and Tans in March 1920 and the Axillaries the following July exasperated the situation and led to increased militancy in the volunteer force and the general population. Support for the volunteers steadily grew and the general population assisted them with funds, safe houses and intelligence. As a result of police crackdowns and further arrests of suspected volunteers, the continued raids on civilian houses, many volunteers went on the run. By mid 1921 there were over 4,000 suspects interned. Many men who were on the run went on to form the celebrated flying columns. These columns consisted of 20 highly armed men, who would attack patrols by laying ambushes on roads, and then melting back into the countryside. Tom Barry was commanding officer of the 3rd (West) Cork Brigade, which was a particularly effective flying column. They were responsible for many successful attacks on military personnel. On 28th of Nov. 1920 they wiped out an Auxiliary regiment in Kilmicheal, Co. Cork killing nearly a whole platoon. In reprisals the Black and Tans burned the City of Cork on 11th of Dec. There were many other tactics used by the I. R. A. during the war, examples include targeting prominent members of the British Establishment and Intelligence for assignation, it is beyond the remit of this short essay to explore these in their entirety. The ultimate goal of these operations and tactics were to disrupt and demoralize the administration of British Rule. After Bloody Sunday the British Intelligence Network was effectively non-existent which the I. R. A. took full advantage of, by actively engaging Crown Forces in the capital while sending out their own armed patrols in select parts of the city. As we can see at the start of the war the Volunteers were a highly disorganized and poorly equipped force. Through the use of guerrilla hit and run tactics, they made the most of their limitations to disrupt and demoralize the crown forces. After G. H. Q. exerted a central command and military structure the volunteers became a more ruthless and successful in active operations. Ultimately the British Establishment appeared to have overestimated the numbers of active members and their access to weapons. If their intelligence apparatus had not been infiltrated and disrupted by the I. R. A. the Crowns military campaign may have been more effective, and they may have continued the war which would have pushed the I. R. A, to the limits of their abilities and resources. G. H. Q. played a pivotal role in forming public opinion through their domestic publication t-Oglach and releasing accounts of civilian casualties and atrocities to foreign correspondents, effectively winning the propaganda war. It is doubtful whether the isolated regional active units would have been as effective without the co-ordination and leadership of G. H. Q. The organization of operations and centralization of command by G. H. Q. , may have been the deciding factor in the War, although many units remained in a state of disarray and were badly equipped for the duration of the war. As a measure of the success and effectiveness of operations conducted, I. R. A. guerrilla tactics became a blue print for many revolutionary forces around the World.

Communication and Proffesional Relationships Essay Example for Free

Communication and Proffesional Relationships Essay 1 Information from supporting teaching learning n schools by Louise Burnham To establish respectful, professional relationships with children and young people you should adapt your behaviour and communication accordingly. You should also be able to show that you are approachable and able to work in an environment of mutual support. When working with children or young people, it is important to earn their trust to enable an honest relationship to develop. This can usually be done by ensuring that your behaviour is professional, relationship and fair at all times. Children of all ages, cultures and abilities must feel secure and valued. In order to get these relationships correct from the start you should all discuss rules and how they will be important when working together. Always respect others at the beginning and remember that this is crucial, start by talking about how you are going to work together and what each individual wants out of it. This will enable that you develop a mutually respectful relationship. All of teachers / assistants need to be aware of the kinds of issues which are vital to pupils and always be able to take time in talking these through when necessary. To show children they are part of the school community you should positively communicate and involve pupils. This however is not the same as giving pupils attention when they demand it! HOW TO BEHAVE APPROPRIATELY FOR A CHILD OR YOUNG PERSON’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT 1.2 Information from supporting teaching learning in schools by Louise Burnham and internet. Communication with children and young people differs across different age groups and stages of development, which may require varying levels of attention at different times. The younger the child, the more reassurance is required, especially when first starting school. They also may need to have more physical contact as a result. As children become more mature, they may require more help with talking through issues and reflecting their thoughts. For example, in Key stage 1 the manner in which I communicate in is being more adapted, to come down to the child’s level of speaking and repeat what is said for them until it is clearly understood. Where as a child in key stage 3 or 4 the language is used informally and formally depending on their confidence to communicate what they think and as technology as evolved emails and text are used as a form of communication. To have patience, act sensitively and take care with children who have  communication difficulties, as they will need a lot more time to understand and comprehend what the task in hand is. Also to feel a reassurance that they don’t feel pressurized when speaking. Some children or young people may not have many opportunities to speak or may be anxious or nervous. The level of communication is adapted to the needs of the individual. For example, if they have a speech disorder, such as a stammer, which makes it difficult for them to speak aloud, then extra time should be allowed, for them to collect their thoughts. Also trying not to finish their sentences, or guess what they are trying to say, to give the child independence of their speech, to encourage self-esteem and confidence. HOW TO DEAL WITH DISAGREEMENTS BETWEEN CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE . 1.3 Disagreements between children and their peers will often happen regularly and teachers or assistants will have to deal with these situations. This can happen in the classroom but is usually in the playground or while having lunch. It is very important for pupils to know that you have listened to their view in what has happened. Always make sure you hear from all sides of the story and find out exactly what has happened from the beginning. Then you should decide whether anyone was in the wrong and if apologies are required or any further steps. For example referral to head teacher. Children and young people should also be able to understand how their own feelings may influence their behaviour and this might have to be discussed. For example saying to a child‘ I understand you are upset today because you could not do baking today’ will help them link between emotion and behaviour. This will able them to understand how to think about others. An effective way of encouraging children to understand and respect others feelings is discussing this as a whole class or making it an activity such as ‘circle time’. Circle time is very effective for older children however very young children may not be able to sit for a length of time and be able to wait for their turn before speaking out. Some schools use strategies such as the restorative justice programme. Which is taken from the criminal justice system and have worked well as a method of resolving behaviour issues.

Sunday 21 July 2019

Source Of Errors In Language Learning Research English Language Essay

Source Of Errors In Language Learning Research English Language Essay Introduction Errors are integral part of language acquisition. The phenomenon of error has long interested SLA researchers. In a traditional second language teaching situation, they are regarded as the linguistic phenomena deviant from the language rules and standard usages, reflecting learners deficiency in language competence and acquisition device. Many teachers simply correct individual errors as they occur, with little attempt to see patterns of errors or to seek causes in anything other than learner ignorance. Presently, however, with the development of linguistics, applied linguists, psychology and other relevant subjects, peoples attitude toward errors changed greatly. Instead of being problem to be overcome or evils to be eradicated, errors are believed to be evidence of the learners stages in their target language (TL) development. It is through analyzing learner errors that errors are elevated from the statue of undesirability to that of a guide to the inner working of the language lea rning process (Ellis, 1985,p 53) In the field of SLA, there have been three influential approaches to errors with a general movement from approaches emphasizing the product, the error itself, to approaches focusing on the underlying process under which the errors are made. The analysis of error sources has been regarded as a central aspect in the study of learner errors. Researchers believe that the clearer the understanding of the sources of learners errors, the better second language teachers will be able to detect the process of L2 learning. Error Making errors is the most natural thing in the world and it is evidently attached to the human beings. But, how do we define error? There are different definitions of the word as Ellis explains learners make errors in both comprehension and production, the first being rather scantly investigated. All learners make errors which have a different name according to the group committing the error. Childrens errors have been seen as transitional forms, the native speakers ones are called slips of the tongue and the second language errors are considered unwanted forms (George 1972). We use the term error to refer to a systematic deviation from a selected norm or set of norms. According to Lennon (1991) an error is a linguistic form or combination of forms which in the same context and under similar conditions of production would, in all likelihood, not be produced by the speakers native speakers counterparts. On one hand, it was considered to be a sign of inadequacy of the teaching techniques, something negative which must be avoided, and on the other hand it was seen as a natural result of the fact that since by nature we cant avoid making errors, we should accept the reality and try to deal with them. The error-as-progress conception is based on the Chomskys idea that a child generates language through innate universal structures. So, using this symbolic code, one can have access to different pieces of knowledge not as something mechanically learned but as mentally constructed through try and error. The idea is now that the second language learners form hypotheses about the rules to be formed in the target language and then test them out against input data and modify them accordingly. There is an approach which concerns error as being the result of social-cognitive interaction. This means that the error implicitly carries a social norm as well as cognitive process. The error also carries a social and cultural component which makes it different in different societies. Cultural differences in the error Previous research has shown that cultural differences exist in the susceptibility of making fundamental attribution error: people from individualistic cultures are prone to the error while people from collectivistic cultures commit less of it (Miller, 1984). It has been found that there is a differential attention to social factors between independent peoples and interdependent peoples in both social and nonsocial contexts: Masuda and his colleagues (2004) in their cartoon figure presentation experiment showed that Japaneses judgments on the target characters facial expression are more influenced by surrounding faces than those of the Americans; whereas Masuda and Nisbett (2001) concluded from their underwater scenes animated cartoon experiment that Americans are also more likely than Japanese participants to mark references to focal objects (i.e. fish) instead of contexts (i.e. rocks and plants). These discrepancies in the salience of different factors to people from different cultu res suggest that Asians tend to attribute behavior to situation while Westerners attribute the same behavior to the actor. Consistently, Morris Peng (1994) found from their fish behavior attribution experiment that more American than Chinese participants perceive the behavior (e.g. an individual fish swimming in front of a group of fish) as internally rather than externally caused. One explanation for this difference in attribution lies in the way people of different cultural orientation perceive themselves in the environment. Particularly, Markus and Kitayama (1991) mentioned how (individualistic) Westerners tend to see themselves as independent agents and therefore prone themselves to individual objects rather than contextual details. in the second language teaching/ learning process the error has always been regarded as one of the most generally known approaches concerning the error throughout human history is to consider it a negative effect or result, even worth to be punished. According to Corder (1967): A learners errors then, provide evidence of the system of the language that he is using. They are significant in three different ways: first to the teacher, in that they tell him is he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has progressed. Second, they provide the researchers with evidence of how language is learned or acquired. Third they are indispensible to the learner himself because he can regard the making of errors as a device used in order to learn. The sources of error might be psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, epistemic or residing in the discourse structures. Richards(1971),when trying to identify the causes of competence errors he came up with three types of errors: interference errors, which reflect the use of elements from one language to the other, intralingual errors, subdivided into errors due to overgeneralization, or to ignorance of rules restriction, which is incomplete application of the rules, or finally due to the false concept hypothesis, which demonstrate the general characteristics of rule learning and third developmental errors when the learner builds hypothesis about the target language based on limited experience. Assuming a term hierarchy of errors, Burt and Kiparasky (1974) suggest that there is a difference between global and local errors. They say: Global mistakes are those that violate rules involving the overall structure of a sentence, the relations among constituent clauses, or, in a simple sentence, the relations among major constituents. Local mistakes cause trouble in a particular constituent, or in clause of a complex sentence. They claim that global errors are more serious and rank higher in the error hierarchy than local ones, and they should be corrected prior to all others in language classrooms. Accordingly, errors in tense and aspect are regarded as local errors. They may be minor errors, for they may not cause grave breakdowns in communication. However, they are extremely common mistakes among second language learners of English and very much worth investigating since tense and aspect represent one of the most essential parts of English grammar. Corder (1967) goes a step further to propose different terminologies for these two kinds of errors and stresses that we must make a clear distinction between mistakes and errors; the former refers to non-systematic performance errors of chance circumstances, whereas the latter can be defined as the systematic errors of the learner from which we are able to reconstruct his knowledge of the language to date. In the following discussion, the analysis focuses on competence errors: There are two major approaches to analyzing errors committed by a target language learner. Contrastive Analysis (CA), Error Analysis (EA). Theoretical base of CA lies in Behaviorist Learning Theory; while the EA is closely related with the emergence of Interlanguage Theory (Ellis, 2005) Behaviorist learning theory accounts of errors: The behaviorist learning theory illustrates the TL learning is a mechanical process of habit formation. Habits entail over-learning, which ensures that learning of new habits as a result of proactive inhibition. Thus, the challenge facing the L2 learner is to overcome the interference of L1 habits. Basing on the habit formation, contrastive analysis sought to identify the features of the L2 that differed from those of the L1 so that learners could be helped to form the new habits of the L2 by practicing them intensively. Most errors made by L2 learners were the result of differences between L1 and L2 structure. (Martin 1996) Interference, the CA insists, is the result of unfamiliarity with the rules of a TL and psychological causes, such as inadequate learning (Swan, 2001). Transfer can be positive or negative: linguistic features of the L1 that are similar to those of the TL will facilitate learning (positive transfer); those aspects of the L1 that are different to the TL grammatical and phonological system will hinder SLA and cause the learner to make numerous production errors(negative transfer). Thus difference between the L1 and L2 create learning difficulty which results in errors, while the similarities between them facilitate rapid and easy learning (Ellis, 1985 cited Corder). According to behaviorist learning theory, both types of transfer are the outcome of automatic and subconscious use of old habits in new learning situations (Dulay, Burt Krashen) Rod Ellis (1985) assesses, errors, according to the theory, were the result of non-learning, rather than wrong learning. By comparing the L1 with TL, differences could be identified and used to predict areas of potential errors. The idea of the error as an effect to be avoided has been especially supported by behaviorism, being considered an obstacle to language learning. To them error has been a symptom of ineffective teaching or as evidence of failure and they believed that when they occur they are to be remedied by provision of correct forms; that is to say, use of intensive drilling and over-teaching. It was also believed that interference takes place whenever there is a difference between native mother tongue and the target language. A hypothesis based on Lados suggestion in linguistic across cultures where he states in comparison between native and foreign language lies the key to ease all difficulties in foreign language learning (Lado, 1957) 2. Interlanguage (IL) theory accounts of errors (i) Selinker (1972) coined the term interlanguage to refer to the systematic knowledge of an L2 which is independent of both these learners L1 and the target language. The term has come to be used with different but related meanings: To refer to the series of interlocking systems which characterize acquisition To refer to the system that is observed at a single stage of development To refer to particular L1, L2 combinations. Other terms that refer to the same basic idea are approximate system and transitional competence. (ii) Interlanguage is the type of language produced by second and foreign language learners who are in the process of learning a language, whose errors are caused by several different processes. These include: Borrowing patterns from the mother tongue. Extending patterns from the target language Expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already known from Richards, Jack et al (1992). (iii)Interlanguage refers to the separateness of a second language learners system, a system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and target language. Interlanguage is neither the system of target language nor the system of the native language, but instead falls between the two; it is a system based upon the best attempt of learners to provide order and structure to the linguistic stimuli surrounding them. By gradual process of trial and error and hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer and closer approximations to the system used by native speakers of the language. (iv)Rod Ellis (2005, 54) views Error Analysis as being based on emergence of IL theory, that is known to be used to explain effectively the errors committed in SLA processes. Slinker (1972) tried to find a way to explain the errors that some students make, have nothing to do with their foreign language; for example a Spanish speaker, an Arabic speaker and a Japanese speaker might all make the same mistake in English which was not related to their respective languages. According to Slinker, L2 learners go through a process of making and testing hypotheses about the target language. They begin with knowledge about language in general, gained from their native language, and move toward the target language. Bit by bit, they readjust their mental model of the new language, improving their communicative competency in that language. Successful hypotheses become mental constructions that correspond to the rules of the new language. Brown(1993) viewed ,truly successful students make the journ ey to a high level of competency in the target language, while less successful students become fossilized somewhere along the IL continuum. For around 35 years Selinker has viewed learners errors as evidence of positive efforts by the learner to learn a new language. This view of language learning allowed for the possibilities of learners making deliberate attempts to control their own learning and, along with theories of cognitive processes in language learning. Errors are indispensable to learners since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to learn. A modern definition of language transfer is provided by Slinker (1992): language transfer is best thought of as a cover term for a whole class of behaviors, processes and constraints, each of which has to do with CLI (Cross Linguistic Influence), the influence and use of prior linguistic knowledge, usually but exclusively native language knowledge. Selinker (1992) pointed two highly significant con tributions that Corder made: that the errors of a learner, whether adult or child, are not random, but are in fact systematic and are not negative or interfering in any way with learning a TL but are, on the contrary, a necessary positive factor, indicative of testing hypothesis. In 1994 Gass and Slinker defined errors as red flags that provide evidence of the learners knowledge of the second language. The learners developing knowledge of second language may have characteristics of the learners native language, characteristics of the second language, and some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systems. Interlanguages are systematic, but they are also dynamic, continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses about the second language.L2 learners process through an interlanguage, which is an independent knowledge of L1 and L2 system. Interlanguage Is systematic, because the learner selects the rul es systematically, learners bases plans on the rule system, in the same way as the native speaker bases on the internalized knowledge of L1 system. (iv)One of the crucial contributions of IL was its underlying assumption that the learners knowledge is integrated and systematically reorganized with previous knowledge of the native language. By a gradual process of trial-and-error or hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer approximations to the system used by the native speaker of the language. The characteristics of IL are described by many researchers as follows: Permeable, in the sense that rules that constitute the learners knowledge at any one stage are not fixed, but are open to amendment(Ellis1985:50) Dynamic, in the sense that L2 learner slowly revises their variable interim systems to accommodate new hypothesis about the TL system. Systematic, in that L2 learners IL is rule-governed, that is, the learner bases his performance plans on his existing rule system much the same way as the native speaker bases his plans on his internalized knowledge of the L1 system. The variable shape of interlanguage The concept of interlanguage has had a major impact on the field of second language acquisition, studies on interlanguage focus on the linguistic and psychological aspects of second language acquisition research. I will first outline how the interlanguage assumption developed .since the interlanguage concept is not only important for the development of the students grammar system; I will then explore how it applies to other components of language. I will also focus on the consequences of the concept for the teacher and his work in the classroom. Before the 1960s language was not considered to be a mental phenomenon. Like other forms of human behavior language is learnt by processes of habit formation. A child learns his mother tongue by imitating the sounds and patterns he hears around him. By approval or disapproval, adults reinforce the childs attempts and lead the efforts to the correct forms. Under the influence of cognitive linguists this explanation of first language acquisitio n was criticized. Language cant be verbal behavior only since children are able to produce an infinite number of utterances that have never heard before. This creativity is only possible because a child develops a system of rules. A large number of studies have shown that children actually do construct their own rule system, which develops gradually until it corresponds to the system of the adults. There is also evidence that they pass through similar stages acquiring grammatical rules. Through the influence of cognitive linguists and first language acquisition research the notion developed that second language learners, too, could be viewed as actively constructing rules from the data they encounter and that they gradually adapt these rules in the direction of the target language. However wrong and inappropriate learners own language system, they are grammatical in their own terms, since they are a product of the learners own language system. This system gradually develops toward t he rule-system of the target language. The various shapes of the learners language competence are called interlanguage. This draws to the fact that the learners language system is neither that of his mother tongue nor that of the second language, but contains elements of both. Therefore, errors need not be seen as signs of failure only, but as evidence of the learners developing system. While the behaviorist approach led to teaching methods which use drills and consider errors as signs of failure, the concept of interlanguage liberated language teaching and paved the way for communicative teaching methods. Since errors are considered a reflection of the students temporary language system and therefore a natural part of the learning process, teachers could now use teaching activities which did not call for constant supervision of the students language. Group work and pair work became suitable means for language learning. A brief review of approaches to analyses of errors Contrastive Analysis (CA) Contrastive analysis is an approach generated from behaviorist learning theory. Through CA applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners first and second languages to predict errors. The basic concept behind CA was that a structural picture of any language could be constructed which might then be used in direct comparison with the structural picture of another language. Through a process of mapping one system onto another, similarities and differences could be identified. Identifying the differences would lead to a better understanding of the problems that a learner of the particular L2 would face. (Corder , 1983). CA stresses the influence of mother tongue in learning a second language in phonological, morphological, lexical and syntactic levels. It holds that L2 would be affected by L1. Here, language is taken as a set of habits and learning as the establishment of new habits, a view sprung from behaviorism, under which langu age is essentially a system of habits. In the course of language learning, L1 learning habits will be transferred into L2 learning habits. Therefore, in the case of L1 transfer into L2, if structures in the MT have their corresponding structures in the TL and L1 habits can be successfully used in the L2, learners would transfer similar properties successfully used in the L2, learners would transfer similar properties successfully and that would result in positive transfer. Contrastively, in the case of negative transfer or interference, certain elements of the MT have no corresponding counterparts in the TL, L1 habits would cause errors in the L2 and learners would transfer inappropriate properties of L1. CA places the environment as the predominant factor in SLA, while learners are believed to play only a passive role in accepting the impositions of the environment. We must not forget that there are numbers of errors made by language learners seem to be unrelated to the learners na tive language. According to SLA researchers non-interference errors were more pervasive in learner performance than CA were ready to recognize. Dulay and Burt (1973) studied the errors made by Spanish-speaking children learning English as an L2 and claimed that all of the learners errors had collected, 85% were developmental (non-interference), 12% were unique and only 3% were results of L1 interference. Primary tenets of CA are: Prime cause of difficulty and error in foreign language learning is interference coming from the learners native language. Difficulties are chiefly due to differences between the two languages The greater the difference s, the more acute the learning difficulties will be The results of a comparison between the two languages are needed to predict th e difficulties and errors which will occur in learning the target language What needs to be taught is discovered by comparing the languages and subtracting what is common to them. (Corder, 1981) 3. Error analysis (EA) It is defined as the study of linguistics ignorance, the investigation of what people do not know and how they attempt to cope with their ignorance, by James (2001).Error analysis was first introduced by Fries (1945) and Lado (1957) who have claimed that foreign or second language learners errors could be predicted on the basis of the differences between the learners native and second languages. They have also suggested that where the aspects of the target language are similar to those of the learners native language, learning will be easy; otherwise, it will be difficult and second language learners are expected to make errors .The field of error analysis in SLA was established in the 1970s by S. P. Corder and colleagues. A widely-available survey can be found in chapter 8 of Brown (2000). Error analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners first an d second languages to predict errors. Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer. A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language. This is the examination of those errors committed by students in both the spoken and written medium. Corder, who has contributed enormously to EA, writes this: The study of error is part of the investigation of the process of language learning. In this respect it resembles methodologically the study of the acquisition of the mother tongue. It provides us with a picture of the linguistic development of a learner and may give us indications as the learning process. Error analysts distinguish between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not. Corder(1967) made use of Chomskys the competence versus performance distinction by associating errors with failures in competence and mistakes with failures in performance. In his view, a mistake occurs as the results of processing limitations rather than lack of competence. It signifies L2 learners failure of utilizing their knowledge of a TL rule. They often seek to develop a typology of errors. Error can be classified according to basic type: omissive, additive, substitutive or related to word order. They can be classified by how apparent they are: overt errors such as I angry are obvious even out of context, whereas covert errors are evident only in context. Closely related to this is the classification according to domain, the breadth of context which the analyst must examine, and extent, the breadth of the utterance which must be changed in order to fix the error. Errors may also be cl assified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on. They may be assessed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication: global errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while local errors do not. In the above example, I angry would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent. From the beginning, error analysis was beset with methodological problems. In particular, the above typologies are problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impossible to reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making. Also, error analysis can deal effectively only with learner production (speaking and writing) and not with learner reception (listening and reading). Furthermore, it cannot account for learner use of communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form with which they are uncomfortable. For these reasons, although error analysis is still used to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner errors has largely been abandoned. In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a more wide-ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage. Error analysis is closely related to the study of error treatment in language teaching. Today, the study of errors is particularly relevant for focus on form teaching methodology. EA emphasizes on the significance of errors in learners IL system, Brown (1994) may be, carried out directly for pedagogic purposes. Carl James (1998) viewed, EA developed out of the belief that errors indicate the learners stage of language learning and acquisition.th learner is seen as an active participant in the development of hypotheses regarding the rules of the target language just as a young child learning the first language. Errors are considered to be evidence of the learners strategy as he or she builds competence in the target language. These errors are defined as global which inhibit understanding and local which do not interfere with communication. Error analysis has been criticized as being an inefficient tool for studying the way second language learners develop their target language. It is argued that error analysis deals with the learners productive competence rather than the receptive one, and it is also an imperfect instrument for categorizing errors and explaining them. In the book Error and Interlanguage written by Pit Corder, he stated that various classifications of these error systems have been developed by error analysis researchers, three of which can be helpful for the teacher and are as follows. Pre-systematic; errors occur before the language learner has realized any system for classifying items being learned; the learner can neither correct nor explain this type of error. Systematic; errors occur after the learner has noticed a system and error consistently occurs; learner can explain but not correct the error. This classification relies on three major groups: (1) interference errors; (2) intralingual errors; (3)development errors. Interference errors are caused by the influence of the native language, in presumably those areas where the languages differ markedly. Intralingual errors originate with the structure to TL itself. The complexity of language encourages over-generalization, incomplete application of rules, and the failure to learn conditions for rule application. Development errors reflect the students attempt to make hypotheses about the language from the native language. Post-systematic; errors occur when learner is consistent in his or her recognition of systems; can explain and correct the error. The following steps are distinguished in conducting an EA: collection of a sample of learner language; identification of errors; explanation of errors; error evaluation (Ellis cited in 2005) Richards (1971) focused on the intralingual and developmental errors observed in the acquisition of English as a second language and further classified them into four categories: (i) Overgeneralization; covering instances where the learners create a deviant structure on the basis of his experience of other structure of the TL. (ii)Ignorance of the rule restriction, occurring as a result of failure to observe the restrictions or existing structures (iii) Incomplete application of rules, arising when the learners fail to fully develop a certain structure required to produce acceptable sentences (iv) False concepts hypothesized, deriving from faulty comprehension of distinctions in the TL. from the analyses of errors to the practice of error correction We know that in traditional classroom instruction is laid on accuracy, errors frequently corrected because the teacher thinks the error as a thorn in his/her flesh. Yet with the understanding of IL theory, the role of error correction has changed. Errors are considered natural products in language learning and in fact reflect the modes of learners developing system. What are the sources and causes of Errors? The following factors are identified as the source and causes of Errors Mother tongue interference Wilkins (1972) observes: When learning a foreign language an individual already knows his mother tongue, and it is this which he attempts to transfer. The transfer may prove to be justified because the structure of the two languages is similar-in that case we get positive transfer or facilitation- or may prove unjustified because the structure of the two languages are different- in that case we get negative transfer- or interference. Loan Words

Saturday 20 July 2019

Java and JavaScript :: essays research papers

Java and JavaScript are languages that evolved because of the Internet. From the evolution of mainframes, to stand-alone PCs, to networked communication, and lastly to the Internet, one thing has been a constant, different languages evolved based on a need. For these two languages, the Internet was a perfect fit, and without them the Internet would be a less dynamic and vibrant highway. As the Internet grew, more and more people found it a more viable place to do business. With that came a need for languages that were fairly easy to learn, dynamic, secure, portable, and maintainable. The industry answered that call with languages such as Java and JavaScript. This paper will perform an analysis of both Java and JavaScript. In order for the reader to gain a better understanding of these languages, the history of these languages with overviews will be presented along with a discussion of the benefits and drawbacks. The History of Java In the middle of May 1995 Java was introduced into the world, and along with Netscape it would be the new way for Internet users to access this new information superhighway. But before it got to this point, Java technology was developed almost by accident. Back in 1991, Sun Microsystems was looking into the future in anticipation of the future of computing, and they tasked a team that became know as the â€Å"Green Project†. Their main focus was to come up with a plan for the future of computing, but what they came out with was something quite unexpected. Under the guidance of James Gosling, a team was locked away in an external site to work on the project that would define Sun’s technology direction for the future. Their conclusions pointed toward a future that had computers and digitally controlled devices converging. What they came out with was a language called â€Å"Oak†, named for the type of tree outside their office window. After failed attempts at selling the technology to the cable industry, the team convened again to determine the future of this new language. With the realization that the Internet was becoming a good way to move media content, the team took that to heart. What they came out with was a language that would use existing the HTML language, and what it did was revolutionize the Internet, and increase its use dramatically. In 1993, after an easy-to-use front-end to the web called Mosaic showed many that the Internet had many possibilities, the team knew that Java was the right fit for the Industry.

Wondrous Strange :: Character Analysis, Kelley Winslow

Life is the condition that distinguishes animals and plants from inorganic matter, including the capacity for growth, reproduction, functional activity, and continual change preceding death. â€Å"It is believed that in life no one can change your happiness but you; therefore, you have the power to change anything about yourself or your life that you want to change† (de Angelis, Barbra). The struggles that the main character, Kelley Winslow, faces strongly affects herself, as well as drives the plot for the reason that she struggles with the decisions she makes, she encounters physical hardships as well as mental that allows her to eventually find her identity. Some people may say that a person has not found themselves; however, you do not find yourself. People create ones self. During the process of creating ones self, you have to know what you fear, and what you cannot live without. Kelley learns what she is afraid of, and who she does not want to lose. â€Å"†¦fear of losing him, sorrow of what he has already risked for her† (Livingston 274). In the novel Kelley finds out that she is adopted. â€Å"Emma†¦ Was I†¦ adopted† (Livingston 222). In continuation to this, Kelley learns from her aunt, Emma, that she is adopted. She also leans more about where she came from, who her birth parents are, and about faerie history. This proves that Kelley wants to know more about where she came from, which leads to making her own identity. In order to create herself, Kelley needs to know more about her heritage. She also learns what she likes, and does not like and what she wants to do with her life. â€Å"Kell ey was speechless. She dreamed of this†¦ This is it. This is my big break!† (Livingston 5), â€Å"Kelley was a Faerie princess. In defiance of the Faerie king, she had taken up her destiny on her terms" (Livingston 316-317). This shows that she accepts herself, in addition to gaining her goals. Kelley Winslow goes went through a huge development, and journey in finding herself, even through the many obstacles she faces. Decision is a mental process you conduct to result in a making of a selection of a choice. Kelley Winslow had made various decisions throughout her life, which had made an impact on her characteristics. Kelley says, â€Å"Hey! Do you need help?" (Livingston 32).

Friday 19 July 2019

Computers Impact on Physically Challenged :: Argumentative Persuasive Papers

Computers' Impact on Physically Challenged Have computers positively impacted society of the physically challenged? The answer to that question is yes. Computers have helped physically challenged people to become more independent and have better and fuller lives. The Internet has been a useful tool for these people because they can buy, sell, or read objects on the web pages. They can buy their groceries and read the newspaper on-line. Without the Internet and computers the physically challenged would have to depend on other people to help them do their shopping or reading. This paper will discuss speech and language impairments, hearing impairments, visual impairments, and mobility impairments and how computers have positively impacted each of these groups of people. First of all speech and language impairments are usually due to defects of articulation, voice production and rhythm, cleft palate speech, delayed speech development, and disorders connected to hearing impairments ("Speech", p.1). Computers have helped these people through software and hardware designed specifically for speech disabilities. One device, called a speech synthesizer, is connected to a computer or incorporated into the software. This can be useful as a training and teaching aid and also it can be used as a voice output for a non-vocal person ("Speech", p.1). This device allows a person who cannot speak, communicate to another individual through the computer. The computer speaks the words for the speech-disabled person. If the main desktop computer is not available for this purpose a portable communication aid can be used. This portable communication aid is an electronic device that has a speech synthesizer and it may be operated with a switch ("Speech", p.1). Another use of computers for the speech and language impairments is cognitive rehabilitation software. This software identifies and treats people who have suffered a stroke or some type of brain injury. The software is designed to concentrate on the detection and retaining of language function ("Speech", p.1). Michigan Memory Series of Software, provided by IBM, is a series that is useful for adults with stroke defects, closed head injuries, and other neurological problems. This series of software is also useful for children with learning disabilities, communication disorder, reading disorder, autism, mental retardation and other speech impairments ("Speech", p.1). Computers have positively impacted the speech and language impairments of people because these people can learn and communicate with others due to computers. Second, computers have positively impacted people who are hearing impaired.

Thursday 18 July 2019

Elegy for Drowned Children by Bruce Dawe Essay

â€Å"Elegy for Drowned Children† is a poem written by Australian poet Bruce Dawe in the 1960’s. An elegy is a sad poem or song that laments the death of a person. This poem implies that the persona had a close relationship with someone who had drowned or loss their child to drowning. This poem has five four-lined stanzas. The first and last lines rhyme with each other while the middle two lines rhyme with each other. This creates a song like quality to the poem. The first three stanzas of the poem end with questions. This structures the idea of parents mourning with unanswered questions. The last two stanzas are enjambed. This gives the effect of the parents realizing there’s no point in questioning their deaths but to be at peace with it. This poem is giving some consolation to the people who have lost loved ones, mainly children, to drowning. The poem frequently refers to Greek mythology. There is an ‘old king’ whom is assumed to be the Greek god of the ocean Poseidon, who resides in the sea and takes care of drowned children. In this poem, the old king takes a ‘shining haul’ of children with his ‘sure’ net. This suggests that many children have been taken by him. The use of the word ‘sure’ implies that no one is really safe from him and that it is fated to happen. It could also mean humans cannot prevent nor control the ocean. However, the persona describes his care as ‘solicitous’ and ‘tender’. This expresses that the king is kind and caring to the children. In an effort to ease the parents’ distress, the use of mythology conveys the notion that the children are not just gone but instead they are being taken care of in a safe ‘kingdom’. Dawe uses a simile when describing the parents who are, ‘calling like birds by the water’s edge†. This use of simile creates the image of frantic and alarmed parents repeatedly calling out the names of the children who have drowned. The significance of using birds instead of any other animal is to create an image that there are many parents who have experienced their children drowning and they collectively call out to the water for the king to return them. The persona also uses simile when describing the boys who visit their parents’ dreams who are ‘fluid as porpoises’. This comparison to the boys to porpoises suggest the bittersweet idea that the boys have been down in the ocean for so long that they have become accustomed to swimming  in the oceans and into their parents’ dreams. The persona also uses imagery when describing the boys’ skin as ‘moonlit’. This could be literal or symbolic. Literally, it could mean the boys’ skin is as pale as the moon. However, symbolically, it could be skin that has not been in the ‘sweet sun’, which is life. The use of alliteration in the line â€Å"From leaden-lidded sleep, softly to steal† slows the tone of the poem down. This creates a dream like quality to the rhythm of the poem which mirrors the actual words of the poem. The repetition of the word ‘upward’ in the last stanza helps create the dream like quality. It quickens the rhythm of the poem and emanates excitement. This could be a reflection of the emotions of the parents when having a dream about their children. This poem uses many techniques to convey it’s main ideas. It is a comforting poem for people who have lost their children to the water. The poem is relevant to us as Australians because we are community that spends a significant amount of time by the beach and in the water. We are also a community that has many deaths caused by drowning.

Wednesday 17 July 2019

The Da Vinci Code Chapter 44-47

CHAPTER 44Ten digits, Sophie said, her cryptologic senses prickle as she studied the print let forward.13-3-2-21-1-1-8-5Grand-pere wrote his handbill morsel on the fin graceWhen Sophie had prototypic trancen the scramb guide Fibonacci grade on the parquet, she had pret give the axeed its sole purpose was to encourage DCPJ to mention in their cryptographers and pro huge Sophie involved.Later, she realized the derives were also a clue as to how to de project the other lines a sequence emerge of ordera numeric anagram. no., utterly amazed, she motto the upshots had a more important meaning still. They were roughly certainly the final recognize to possibility her grandpas inexplicable pencil eraser- deposit cutfulful.He was the master copy of double-entendres, Sophie said, turning to Langdon. He loved any thing with quadruplex demeaners of meaning. Codes within enactments.Langdon was al analyzey moving toward the electronic podium near the conveyor smash hip-hop. Sophie grabbed the reck nonp beilr print erupt and fol lowed.The podium had a com deputeer keyboard akin to that of a bank ATM terminationinal. The examine disp po jibed the banks cruciform logo. Beside the keypad was a trilateral hole. Sophie wasted no time inserting the fishgig of her key into the hole.The screen refreshed instantly. forward- expressions report fleck _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _The cursor blinked. Waiting.Ten digits.Sophie read the numbers off the print forbidden, and Langdon typed them in. banknote NUMBER 1 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 8 5When he had typed the prevail digit, the screen refreshed again. A capacity in several languages appeared. English was on blow over.CAUTION to begin with you strike the scratch key, please check the accuracy of your account number.For your aver security, if the computer does not energize it on your account number, this system die behind mechanic for distributively superstar(prenominal)y shut work through.Fonction termine r,Sophie said, frowning. Looks homogeneous we unaccompanied bind one try. Standard ATM machines anyowed users common chord attempts to type a PIN in fronthand confiscating their bank card. This was obviou slippery no banausic cash machine.The number looks right, Langdon confirmed, cautiously checking what they had typed and compare it to the printout. He motioned to the ENTER key. Fire a focus.Sophie prolonged her index finger toward the keypad, but hesitated, an unexpended ruling forthwith hitting her. Go a top dog, Langdon urged. Vernet provide be ass soon. No. She casted her hand a flair. This isnt the right account number. Of cut by dint of it is Ten digits. What else would it be? Its too random. too random? Langdon could not set out disagreed more. either bank rede its customers to choose PINs at random so mystery story code could possibility them. Certainly clients here would be advised to choose their account numbers at random.Sophie deleted eitherthi ng she had still typed in and looked up at Langdon, her gaze self-astireed. Its furthermost too cooccurring that this supposedly random account number could be rearranged to form the Fibonacci sequence.Langdon realized she had a point. Earlier, Sophie had rearranged this account number into the Fibonacci sequence. What were the odds of macrocosm able to do that?Sophie was at the keypad again, entering a different number, as if from memory. More over, with my grandfathers love of symbolizationism and mandates, it seems to follow that he would fuddle chosen an account number that had meaning to him, something he could easily remember. She end typing the entry and gave a sly smile. mostthing that appeared random but was not. Langdon looked at the screen.ACCOUNT NUMBER 1123581321It took him an instant, but when Langdon spotted it, he knew she was right.The Fibonacci sequence.1-1-2-3-5-8-13-21When the Fibonacci sequence was melded into a single ten-digit number, it became nearly unrecognizable. Easy to remember, and thus far seemingly random.A bright ten-digit code that Sauniere would neer forget. Furthermore, it perfectly explained wherefore the scrambled numbers on the Louvre floor could be rearranged to form the noted progression. Sophie reached wipe out and pressed the ENTER key. secret code happened.At least nothing they could detect.At that moment, infra them, in the banks cavernous subterraneous vault, a zombiic crotchet sprang to livelihood. Sliding on a double-axis manoeuver system committed to the ceiling, the claw orchestrateed off in see of the proper coordinates. On the cement floor below, hundreds of identical ductile incases lay adjust on an coarse grid the likes of rows of sm e actually coffins in an underground crypt. whirring to a stop over the reverse spot on the floor, the claw dropped down, an electric eye confirming the bar code on the recess seat. Then, with computer precision, the claw grasped the enceinte han dle and hoisted the crate vertic onlyy. New gears engaged, and the claw transported the box to the uttermost side of the vault, climax to a stop over a stationary conveyor rush. Gently now, the recuperation arm set down the crate and retracted. formerly the arm was clear, the conveyor belt whirred to life .Upstairs, Sophie and Langdon exhaled in relief to see the conveyor belt fail. Standing beside the belt, they felt up like weary travelers at luggage claim a fall in a mysterious character of luggage whose contents were un sack outn.The conveyor belt entered the room on their right through a narrow slit downstairs a retractable brink. The admixture room access slid up, and a huge flexible box appeared, emerging from the depths on the inclined conveyor belt. The box was b miss, heavy molded plastic, and far plumpingr than she imagined. It looked like an air-freight pet transport crate without any air holes. The box coasted to a stop directly in bowel movement of them. Langdon and Sophie stood there, silent, unadulterated at the mysterious container.Like everything else somewhat this bank, this crate was industrial metal clasps, a bar code sticker on top, and molded industrial handle. Sophie thought it looked like a fiend toolbox.Wasting no time, Sophie unhooked the twain buckles facing her. Then she glanced over at Langdon. Together, they brocaded(a) the heavy lid and let it deterioration back.Stepping forward, they peered down into the crate.At origin glance, Sophie thought the crate was empty. Then she saw something. sit at the bottom of the crate. A lone(prenominal) item.The polished woodwind instrumenten box was about the size of a shoebox and had ornate hinges. The wood was a lustrous trench purplish with a strong grain. travelwood, Sophie realized. Her grandfathers favorite. The lid fatigue a comely inlaid figure of a go. She and Langdon exc cohereed puzzled looks. Sophie leaned in and grabbed the box, lifting it out.M y God, its heavyShe carried it gingerly to a monstrous receiving table and set it down. Langdon stood beside her, twain of them staring at the sm every last(predicate) treasure vanity her grandfather apparently had sent them to retrieve.Langdon stared in wonderment at the lids hand-carved inlay a tailfin-petal go up. He had seen this type of rose umteen a(prenominal) quantify. The five-petal rose, he whispered, is a Priory symbol for the consecrate Grail.Sophie turned and looked at him. Langdon could see what she was mobilizeing, and he was thinking it too. The dimensions of the box, the apparent weight of its contents, and a Priory symbol for the Grail whole seemed to demand one unfathomable conclusion. The Cup of the Nazarene is in this wooden box. Langdon again told himself it was insurmountable.Its a perfect size, Sophie whispered, to hold a chalice.It tusht be a chalice.Sophie pulled the box toward her across the table, preparing to informal it. As she moved it , though, something unexpected happened. The box let out an odd gurgling sound.Langdon did a double take. Theres molten indoors?Sophie looked every bit conf employ. Did you just hear ? Langdon nodded, lost. smooth. Reaching forward, Sophie tardily unhooked the clasp and raised the lid.The object within was unlike anything Langdon had ever seen. One thing was immediately clear to both of them, however. This was unquestionably not the Cup of Christ.CHAPTER 45The law are b enmeshing the street, Andre Vernet said, walking into the waiting room. Getting you out allow for be difficult. As he c beard(a) the door behind him, Vernet saw the heavy-duty plastic case on the conveyor belt and halted in his tracks. My God They accessed Saunieres account?Sophie and Langdon were at the table, huddling over what looked to be a large wooden jewelry box. Sophie immediately mostd the lid and looked up. We had the account number after all, she said.Vernet was speechless(prenominal). This chang ed everything. He respect in full diverted his look from the box and tried to figure out his next move. I have to get them out of the bank exclusively with the constabulary already having set up a roadblock, Vernet could imagine still one direction to do that. Mademoiselle Neveu, if I can get you guardly out of the bank, will you be taking the item with you or returning it to the vault forwards you leave?Sophie glanced at Langdon and thence back to Vernet. We pauperisation to take it.Vernet nodded. Very well. Then whatsoever the item is, I suggest you range it in your jacket as we move through the hall meanss. I would prefer nobody else see it.As Langdon shed his jacket, Vernet move over to the conveyor belt, closed the now empty crate, and typed a serial of simple(a) commands. The conveyor belt began moving again, get hold ofing the plastic container back down to the vault. Pulling the specie key from the podium, he handed it to Sophie.This way please. Hurry.When the y reached the rear laden get into, Vernet could see the nictation of legal philosophy out of works filtering through the underground garage. He frowned. They were probably blocking the ramp. Am I really going to try to pull this off? He was sweating now.Vernet motioned to one of the banks small armour hand transports. Transport sur was another(prenominal) service offered by the down payment Bank of Zurich.Get in the consignment hold, he said, heaving brusk the long rear door and motioning to the glistening make compartment. Ill be right back.As Sophie and Langdon climbed in, Vernet travel rapidly across the loading get into to the dock overseers bunk, let himself in, collected the keys for the truck, and name a drivers uniform jacket and cap. Shedding his own suit coat and tie, he began to put on the drivers jacket. Reconsidering, he donned a raise holster beneath the uniform. On his way out, he grabbed a drivers pistol from the rack, put in a clip, and stuffed it in the holster, buttoning his uniform over it. Returning to the truck, Vernet pulled the drivers cap down low and peered in at Sophie and Langdon, who were standing interior the empty steel box.Youll want this on, Vernet said, hit inwardly and flicking a wall reverse to illuminate the lone courtesy electric light on the holds ceiling. And youd better sit down. not a sound on our way out the admittance.Sophie and Langdon sat down on the metal floor. Langdon cradled the treasure wadded in his duster jacket. Swinging the heavy doors closed, Vernet locked them at bottom. Then he got in behind the wheel and revved the engine.As the armored truck lumbered toward the top of the ramp, Vernet could olfactory sensation the sweat already collecting beneath his drivers cap. He could see there were far more police lights in summit than he had imagined. As the truck cater up the ramp, the interior gate swung inward to let him pass. Vernet advanced and waited turn the gate behind him closed before pulling forward and tripping the next sensor. The abet gate loose, and the exit beckoned.Except for the police car blocking the top of the ramp.Vernet dabbed his os frontale and pulled forward.A lanky officer stepped out and waved him to a stop a few meters from the roadblock. Four patrol cars were parked out front.Vernet stopped. Pulling his drivers cap down farther, he effected as rough a facade as his cultured nurture would allow. non budging from behind the wheel, he uncloudeded the door and gazed down at the component, whose demo was stern and sallow.Quest-ce qui se passe? Vernet asked, his tone rough.Je suis Jerome Collet, the operator said. Lieutenant Police Judiciaire. He motioned to the trucks cargo hold. Quest-ce quily a la dedans? cuckoos nest if I know, Vernet replied in crude French. Im only a driver. Collet looked unimpressed. Were flavour for two criminals. Vernet laughed. Then you came to the right spot. Some of these bastards I drive for have so such(prenominal) specie they must be criminals.The mover held up a passport protrude of Robert Langdon. Was this man in your bank this evening? Vernet shrugged. No clue. Im a dock rat. They dont let us anywhere near the clients. You necessity to go in and ask the front desk.Your bank is demanding a search countenance before we can enter.Vernet put on a disgusted look. Administrators. Dont get me started. on the fence(p) your truck, please. Collet motioned toward the cargo hold. Vernet stared at the agent and forced an obnoxious laugh. Open the truck? You think I have keys? You think they go for us? You should see the make wages I get paid.The agents school principal tilted to one side, his skepticism evident. Youre state me you dont have keys to your own truck?Vernet agitate his head. Not the cargo area. Ignition only. These trucks get sealed by overseers on the loading dock. Then the truck sits in dock composition psyche drives the cargo keys to the drop-off. at once we get the portend that the cargo keys are with the recipient, then I get the okey to drive. Not a second before. I never know what the nether region Im lugging.When was this truck sealed?Must have been hours ago. Im crusade all the way up to St. Thurial tonight. pack keys are already up there.The agent do no response, his eye inquisitory as if trying to read Vernets mind.A drop of sweat was preparing to slide down Vernets nose. You mind? he said, wiping his nose with his arm and motioning to the police car blocking his way. Im on a tight schedule.Do all the drivers wear Rolexes? the agent asked, pointing to Vernets wrist.Vernet glanced down and saw the glistening band of his absurdly costly watch peeking out from beneath the weapon system of his jacket. Merde. This piece of shit? Bought it for twenty euro from a Taiwanese street vendor in St. Germain des Pres. Ill sell it to you for forty. The agent bring to an endd and ulti mat upely stepped aside. No thanks. Have a safe trip. Vernet did not breathe again until the truck was a good fifty meters down the street. And now he had another problem. His cargo. Where do I take them?CHAPTER 46Silas lay prone on the canvas mat in his room, allowing the lash wounds on his back to c freshet in the air. this evenings second academic session with the Discipline had leftfield him dizzy and weak. He had yet to remove the cilice belt, and he could experience the blood trickling down his inner thigh. Still, he could not justify removing the strap.I have failed the Church.Far worse, I have failed the bishop.Tonight was supposed to be Bishop Aringarosas salvation. Five months ago, the bishop had returned from a meeting at the Vatican Observatory, where he had intimate something that left him deeply changed. Depressed for weeks, Aringarosa had finally shared the news with Silas.But this is impossible Silas had cried out. I cannot accept itIt is true, Aringarosa said. Unthinkable, but true. In only six mont hs.The bishops words terrorise Silas. He prayed for deliverance, and even in those fateful days, his trust in God and The focusing never wavered. It was only a month later that the clouds parted miraculously and the light of possibility shone through.Divine intervention, Aringarosa had addressed it.The bishop had seemed hopeful for the first time. Silas, he whispered, God has bestowed upon us an opportunity to value The Way. Our battle, like all battles, will take sacrifice. Will you be a soldier of God?Silas fell to his knees before Bishop Aringarosa the man who had given him a new life and he said, I am a lamb of God. Shepherd me as your heart commands.When Aringarosa described the opportunity that had presented itself, Silas knew it could only be the hand of God at work. Miraculous fate Aringarosa put Silas in contact with the man who had proposed the plan a man who called himself the Teacher. Although the Teacher and Silas never met face-to-face, each time they spoke by phone, Silas was awed, both by the profundity of the Teachers faith and by the scope of his power. The Teacher seemed to be a man who knew all, a man with eye and ears in all places. How the Teacher pull together his development, Silas did not know, but Aringarosa had placed enormous trust in the Teacher, and he had told Silas to do the same. Do as the Teacher commands you, the bishop told Silas. And we will be victorious.Victorious.Silas now gazed at the au naturel(p) floor and feared victory had eluded them. The Teacher had been tricked. The linchpin was a devious dead end. And with the deception, all hope had vanished.Silas wished he could call Bishop Aringarosa and reprehend him, but the Teacher had removed all their lines of direct communication tonight. For our safety.Finally, overcoming enormous trepidation, Silas crawled to his feet and found his robe, which lay on the floor. He turn over his cell phone from the pocket. Hanging his head in shame, he dialed. Teacher, h e whispered, all is lost. Silas truthfully told the man how he had been tricked. You lose your faith too quick, the Teacher replied. I have just received news. virtually unexpected and welcome. The secret lives. Jacques Sauniere transferred information before he died. I will call you soon. Our work tonight is not yet done.CHAPTER 47Riding inside the pallidly lit cargo hold of the armored truck was like being transported inside a cell for solitary confinement. Langdon fought the all too familiar anxiety that haunt him in confined spaces. Vernet said he would take us a safe distance out of the city.Where? How far?Langdons legs had gotten arch from sitting cross-legged on the metal floor, and he shifted his position, wincing to feel the blood displace back into his lower body. In his arms, he still clutched the bizarre treasure they had extricated from the bank.I think were on the highway now, Sophie whispered.Langdon sensed the same thing. The truck, after an unnerving pause at op the bank ramp, had moved on, snaking left and right for a minute or two, and was now accelerating to what felt like top speed. Beneath them, the bulletproof tires hummed on smoothen pavement. Forcing his attention to the rosewood box in his arms, Langdon laid the precious bundle on the floor, unwrapped his jacket, and extracted the box, pulling it toward him. Sophie shifted her position so they were sitting side by side. Langdon all of a sudden felt like they were two kids huddle together over a Christmas present.In personal line of credit to the warm colors of the rosewood box, the inlaid rose had been finesseed of a pale wood, probably ash, which shone distinctly in the dim light. The Rose.Entire armies and religions had been reinforced on this symbol, as had secret societies. The Rosicrucians.The Knights of the reddened Cross.Go ahead, Sophie said. Open it.Langdon took a deep breath. Reaching for the lid, he stole one more admiring glance at the obscure woodwork and th en, unhooking the clasp, he opened the lid, revealing the object within.Langdon had harbored several fantasies about what they qualification find inside this box, but clearly he had been wrong on every account. Nestled snugly inside the boxs to a great extent padded interior of crimson silk lay an object Langdon could not even bulge out to comprehend.Crafted of polished white marble, it was a play off cylinder approximately the dimensions of a tennis ball can. More complicated than a simple column of stone, however, the cylinder appeared to have been assembled in many pieces. Six doughnut-sized disks of marble had been stacked and affixed to one another within a delicate presidential term framework. It looked like some kind of tubular, multi-wheeled kaleidoscope. distributively end of the cylinder was affixed with an end cap, also marble, making it impossible to see inside. Having perceive liquid within, Langdon assumed the cylinder was hollow.As mystifying as the grammat ical construction of the cylinder was, however, it was the engravings rough the tubes circumference that displace Langdons primary focus. Each of the six disks had been carefully carved with the same unlikely series of garners the entire alphabet. The earned cylinder reminded Langdon of one of his childhood toys a gat threaded with lettered tumblers that could be revolved to spell different words.Amazing, isnt it? Sophie whispered.Langdon glanced up. I dont know. What the hell is it?Now there was a fall in Sophies eye. My grandfather used to craft these as a hobby. They were invented by da Vinci Da Vinci.Even in the pass on light, Sophie could see Langdons surprise. Da Vinci? he muttered, looking again at the canister. Yes. Its called a cryptex.According to my grandfather, the blueprints come from one of Da Vincis secret diaries. What is it for? Considering tonights events, Sophie knew the repartee might have some interest implications. Its a vault, she said. For storing s ecret information.Langdons eyes widened further.Sophie explained that creating models of Da Vincis inventions was one of her grandfathers best-loved hobbies. A talented crafter who spent hours in his wood and metal shop, Jacques Sauniere enjoyed imitating master craftsmen Faberge, assorted cloisonne artisans, and the less artistic, but far more practical, da Vinci Da Vinci.Even a perfunctory glance through Da Vincis journals revealed why the luminary was as notorious for his lack of follow-through as he was famous for his brilliance. Da Vinci had drawn up blueprints for hundreds of inventions he had never make. One of Jacques Saunieres favorite pastimes was obstetrical delivery Da Vincis more obscure brainstorms to life timepieces, water pumps, cryptexes, and even a fully articulated model of a mediaeval French knight, which now stood proudly on the desk in his office. Designed by Da Vinci in 1495 as an outgrowth of his earliest anatomy and kinesiology studies, the internal mechanism of the robot knight possessed accurate joints and tendons, and was knowing to sit up, wave its arms, and move its head via a flexible neck while opening and closing an anatomically pass up jaw. This armor-clad knight, Sophie had continuously believed, was the most beautiful object her grandfather had ever built that was, until she had seen the cryptex in this rosewood box.He made me one of these when I was little, Sophie said. But Ive never seen one so ornate and large.Langdons eyes had never left the box. Ive never heard of a cryptex.Sophie was not surprised. Most of Leonardos unbuilt inventions had never been studied or even named. The term cryptex possibly had been her grandfathers creation, an apt title for this whatsis that used the science of cryptography to protect information pen on the contained catalogue or codex.Da Vinci had been a cryptology pioneer, Sophie knew, although he was seldom given credit. Sophies university instructors, while presenting compu ter encryption methods for securing data, praised modern cryptologists like Zimmerman and Schneier but failed to mention that it was Leonardo who had invented one of the first rudimentary forms of public key encryption centuries ago. Sophies grandfather, of course, had been the one to tell her all about that.As their armored truck roared down the highway, Sophie explained to Langdon that the cryptex had been Da Vincis solution to the predicament of sending secure messages over long distances. In an era without telephones or e-mail, anyone abstracted to convey private information to someone far away had no pick but to write it down and then trust a messenger to carry the letter. Unfortunately, if a messenger suspected the letter might contain valuable information, he could make far more money selling the information to adversaries than he could delivering the letter properly.Many great minds in story had invented cryptologic solutions to the challenge of data tribute Julius Caesa r devised a code-writing scheme called the Caesar Box Mary, queen regnant of Scots created a transposition cipher and sent secret communiques from prison and the fantabulous Arab scientist Abu Yusuf Ismail al-Kindi protected his secrets with an ingeniously conceived polyalphabetic substitution cipher.Da Vinci, however, eschewed mathematics and cryptology for a robotic solution. The cryptex. A portable container that could safeguard letters, maps, diagrams, anything at all. Once information was sealed inside the cryptex, only the individual with the proper war cry could access it.We require a password, Sophie said, pointing out the lettered dials. A cryptex works very much like a bicycles combination lock. If you set out the dials in the proper position, the lock slides open. This cryptex has five lettered dials. When you rotate them to their proper sequence, the tumblers inside align, and the entire cylinder slides apart. And inside? Once the cylinder slides apart, you have ac cess to a hollow central compartment, which can hold a scroll of paper on which is the information you want to keep private.Langdon looked incredulous. And you label your grandfather built these for you when you were younger?Some smaller ones, yes. A couple times for my birthday, he gave me a cryptex and told me a riddle. The make out to the riddle was the password to the cryptex, and once I figured it out, I could open it up and find my birthday card. A lot of work for a card. No, the cards always contained another riddle or clue. My grandfather loved creating elaborate treasure die hards around our house, a string of clues that eventually led to my real gift. Each treasure hunt was a test of character and merit, to regard I earned my rewards. And the tests were never simple.Langdon eye the device again, still looking skeptical. But why not just open up it apart? Or smash it? The metal looks delicate, and marble is a soft rock.Sophie smiled. Because Da Vinci is too smart for t hat. He knowing the cryptex so that if you try to force it open in any way, the information self-destructs. Watch. Sophie reached into the box and carefully lifted out the cylinder. both information to be inserted is first written on a papyrus scroll.Not vellum?Sophie shook her head. Papyrus. I know sheeps vellum was more durable and more common in those days, but it had to be papyrus. The thinner the better.Okay.Before the papyrus was inserted into the cryptexs compartment, it was rolled around a delicate glass vial. She tipped the cryptex, and the liquid inside gurgled. A vial of liquid.Liquid what?Sophie smiled. vinegar.Langdon hesitated a moment and then began nodding. Brilliant.Vinegar and papyrus, Sophie thought. If someone attempted to force open the cryptex, the glass vial would break, and the vinegar would quickly dissolve the papyrus. By the time anyone extracted the secret message, it would be a glob of insignificant pulp.As you can see, Sophie told him, the only way to access the information inside is to know the proper five-letter password. And with five dials, each with twenty-six letters, thats twenty-six to the fifth power. She quickly estimated the permutations. approximately twelve million possibilities.If you say so, Langdon said, looking like he had approximately twelve million questions running through his head. What information do you think is inside? some(prenominal) it is, my grandfather obviously wanted very badly to keep it secret. She paused, closing the box lid and eyeing the five-petal Rose inlaid on it. Something was bothering her. Did you say earlier that the Rose is a symbol for the Grail?Exactly. In Priory symbolism, the Rose and the Grail are synonymous.Sophie furrowed her brow. Thats strange, because my grandfather always told me the Rose meant secretiveness.He used to hang a rose on his office door at home when he was having a confidential phone call and didnt want me to disturb him. He promote me to do the same. Sweet ie, her grandfather said, rather than lock each other out, we can each hang a rose la fleur des secrets on our door when we look at privacy.This way we learn to respect and trust each other.Hanging a rose is an ancient Roman custom. wedge heel rosa,Langdon said. The Romans hung a rose over meetings to indicate the meeting was confidential. Attendees soundless that whatever was said under the rose or sub rosa had to hang on a secret.Langdon quickly explained that the Roses overtone of secrecy was not the only reason the Priory used it as a symbol for the Grail. genus Rosa rugosa, one of the oldest species of rose, had five petals and pentagonal symmetry, just like the control star of Venus, self-aggrandising the Rose strong iconographic ties to womanhood.In addition, the Rose had close ties to the concept of true direction and navigating ones way. The cranial orbit Rose helped travelers navigate, as did Rose Lines, the longitudinal lines on maps. For this reason, the Rose w as a symbol that spoke of the Grail on many levels secrecy, womanhood, and guidance the feminine chalice and guiding star that led to secret truth.As Langdon finished his explanation, his expression seemed to tighten suddenly. Robert? are you okay? His eyes were riveted to the rosewood box. Subrosa,he choked, a fearful astonishment sweeping across his face. It cant be.What?Langdon slowly raised his eyes. Under the sign of the Rose, he whispered. This cryptex I think I know what it is.